Critiques of Singular Perspective
Consuming others and displaying power and privilege comes to the forefront where, in this context, the notion of consuming others pertains to how ethnicity serves as a seasoning or influence on mainstream white culture. This perspective predominantly examines it from a power perspective, wherein white consumers possess advantages in choosing, colonizing, assimilating, and exploiting others and their cultural preferences. However, a singular viewpoint regarding this power dynamic has faced significant criticism. According to Peter Jackson, society should meticulously scrutinize the intricacies of production processes, political representation, and consumption practices to comprehend the shifts in power dynamics in each specific instance. For instance, ethnic cuisine serves as a means of acquiring insights into a particular group of people or a specific region. Consequently, when deliberating on the consumption of ethnic food, consumer groups are not necessarily uniform, as each individual carries diverse backgrounds and daily experiences. Therefore, abandoning the notion of a homogeneous white consumer group may be necessary.
Renowned cultural studies scholar Lawrence Grossberg introduced the concept of radical contextualization as a research strategy. Each context yields distinct connections, associations, meanings, and discourses in this approach. Grossberg posits that if reality is relational and articulated, these relationships are contingent and genuine, never ultimately closed or absolute. As a counterpoint to Marxist determinism, contextualism consolidates various determinants and influences, and their interconnections are not intrinsically obligatory, fixed, definitive, or timeless.
Furthermore, rooted in Marxist theory, cultural studies extensively explore the interplay between structure and agency. Governments consistently navigate asymmetrical power dynamics that are frequently overlooked and favor existing governmental structures. Sensory apparatuses also offer potential subjects for cultural studies, although regrettably, this area has not been explored extensively in the social sciences for many years. It may be attributable to the fact that taste and smell are linked to personal memories and subjective emotions, rendering them challenging to investigate and regarded as unreliable sources of knowledge.
Smell and Senses
According to Walter Ong, the sensorium is an intriguing cultural study subject. In response to the prevailing emphasis on visual perception in social sciences, Zygmunt Bauman argued that modernity campaigned against the sense of smell. Aromas were deemed incompatible with the orderly construct of modernity, with Bauman viewing smell as opposed to modernity. Similarly, in their book Aroma: The Cultural History of Smell, Constance Classen, David Howes, and Anthony Synnott contended that vision, being the most dominant and dependable sense, merits critical examination as a cultural phenomenon. Classen, Howes, and Synnott observed that the sense of smell was devalued during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Philosophers and scientists of that era established that sight represented reason and civilization, while smell was associated with madness and barbarism. Smell was marginalized because it was perceived as a threat to modernity’s rational and objective facets. In essence, Western tradition relegated smell to a lesser sense that did not support rational judgment and blurred the fundamental Western philosophical division between subjectivity and objectivity. Despite enduring challenges, modern thought has yet to definitively address questions about the analysis and interpretation of taste and smell, or, in other words, how to transform them into knowledge. Only in recent decades have scholars in the social and humanities disciplines redirected their attention toward the senses.
In 2018, Bloomsbury published two significant series: A Cultural History of Senses, consisting of six volumes edited by Constance Classen, and Senses and Sensations, consisting of four volumes edited by David Howes. The first series takes a historical approach to studying the senses from ancient to modern times. In contrast, the second series delves into how the senses are examined across diverse disciplines, including geography, anthropology, history, sociology, art, biology, psychology, and neuroscience.
On the other hand, academic investigations addressing the intersection of food and the senses have been thoroughly explored by David Sutton. As Sutton suggests, there are three potential avenues for further ethnographic exploration and analysis:
- The first delves into the sensory attributes of food, mainly taste and smell, playing pivotal roles in shaping social distinctions and cultural boundaries. Taste and smell define boundaries between different groups, such as Westerners and immigrants, with distinct aromas linked to various social classes and ethnicities. For instance, the capacity to appreciate kimchi, a Korean dish, is closely intertwined with Korean identity in Japan. Bodily memory assumes significance in comprehending identity struggles, as taste and smell serve as existential expressions of the body in constructing identity. It underscores the importance of sensory perception in shaping cultural identities.
- The second explores the principles and contradictions of societal taste by integrating diverse perspectives, including contributions from synesthetic and intersensorial experiences. While taste was equated with touch in ancient times, modern taste is intricately connected with smell. The existence of at least ten or 33 senses underscores their interconnectivity in providing multisensory experiences.
- The third investigates shifts in taste and culture. Sidney Mintz’s book Sweetness and Power delves into the political economy of sugar in world history, examining power dynamics between producers and consumers. Sugar, once considered a luxury commodity in Europe, transitioned into a mass-consumed product after the 1850s, resulting in the mass migration of millions of Africans.
These three potential avenues for further ethnographic analysis can aid in approaching the senses from diverse angles, considering power dynamics within the dominant sensory paradigm, intersensorial experiences, and the influence of political economy. Consequently, studying the senses provides insights into power dynamics, politics, and global/local transformations.
Methodological Approaches for Sensory Research
Sarah Pink offers practical guidelines for conducting research on the senses with a self-reflective approach. The ethnographer’s interaction with their body is paramount here, as they utilize it as a research instrument. The senses are not fixed; they undergo continuous shifts and transformations, particularly in human perception and behaviors. The ethnographer’s sensory experiences inevitably shape the production of knowledge. Pink introduces two methodological approaches to conducting research.
First is sensory subjectivity, which entails an examination of our sensory subjectivity from both cultural and personal perspectives. Reflexivity has become a crucial element in ethnography, where the dichotomy of objectivity versus subjectivity no longer holds sway. Notably, feminist geographers and anthropologists embrace reflexivity in their methodologies. As Gillian Rose asserts, researchers, the researched, and the research co-create each other; research and the self become interactive texts. In this context, the body should serve as a tool in research because bodily reactions, movements, physical presence, bodily odors, and vocal tones influence the research process. For instance, the geography of disgust represents an unspoken geography, yet our emotions compel us to question the silence and the constructions of our differences. Therefore, research is an embodied process, and employing our bodies as research instruments constitutes an integral facet of ethnography.
The second concept is sensory intersubjectivity. Pink underscores the significance of intersubjective connections with others and our sensory material environment. Pink contends that our social interactions are not solely reliant on verbal communication or visual impressions; they encompass multisensory and fully embodied experiences. Consequently, by adhering to Pink’s guidance and employing sensory subjectivity and intersubjectivity methods, our bodies can function as research tools when delving into taste and smell. Further exploration of hegemonic sensory systems and the interplay between the senses and social distinctions warrants investigation. It is precisely where cultural studies should intervene. Suppose we accept that taste and smell delineate boundaries of ethnicity, class, and nationality and that diverse odors and flavors are linked to distinct social strata and ethnic communities. In that case, we must consider the potential of food in cross-cultural studies, even though this potential is always contingent upon and contextualized by specific circumstances.
Cuisine as a Catalyst
Numerous theorists highlight the dynamic role of cuisine in instigating social change and serving as a wellspring of empowerment within the global marketplace. For instance, Sylvia Ferrero underscores the economic, social, and even political sway of cultural intermediaries in creating, disseminating, and portraying cuisine and its cultural identity, particularly exemplified in Mexican restaurants in Los Angeles. She does not merely view Mexican cuisine as an expression of social and cultural identity; she regards it as a realm where social transformation can transpire. Ferrero contends that Mexican restaurant enterprises in Los Angeles pave the way for immigrant labor, empower ethnic identities, bolster economic and social resilience, and nurture solidarity and social partnerships among immigrants. Consequently, Mexican cuisine has evolved into a tool for Mexican immigrants in Los Angeles to achieve social and economic advancement.
Ayşe Çağlar illustrates how Turkish Germans wield the authority to shape their own identity within the Döner Kebab industry in Berlin. Lisa Law underscores the significance of Filipino women in Hong Kong as influential agents who actively carve out spaces in the city through cooking and dining. Filipino women employ food to foster bonds among themselves in a foreign land. These studies hold significance as they challenge traditional perceptions of power dynamics and identity politics within the market. Furthermore, culinary practices and food actively form cultural arenas for political processes. For instance, Kebab has played a role in diminishing animosity toward foreigners and Turks, with slogans such as “Nothing works without foreigners” employed to counteract German racism. For Çağlar, kebabs serve as a means of communication and solidarity-building, not just among Turkish citizens but also between Turkish citizens and other foreigners.
Additionally, in Carol M. Counihan’s research, food is a conduit for discussing gender, class, and ethnic barriers in the San Luis Valley, Colorado. Gamal Abdel-Shehid explores the role of soul food in the battle against racism. Therefore, instead of merely depicting individual entrepreneurs and consumers as passive and powerless, we must acknowledge their role in self-identification, solidarity formation, and mitigating hostility and racism.
Within this context, food and public pedagogy concepts assume significance. Rick Flowers and Elaine Swan define “public pedagogy” as the realms, processes, and methods of learning that occur beyond the formal education system. Food can serve as a tool for communal pedagogy in everyday life, as consuming ethnic cuisine can offer educational experiences about diverse cultures. Lisa Stowe and Dawn Johnson argue that sensory learning is integral to culinary tourism.
Curry Consumption and Working-Class Masculinity
A cultural studies scholar, Ben Highmore, investigates the interplay between taste, xenophobia, and multiculturalism. By challenging the conventional idea of appropriating aspects of other cultures, he explores whether taste can serve as a tool to reduce xenophobia and racism while nurturing empathy and understanding for those from diverse backgrounds. Highmore’s particular focus centers on white working-class football enthusiasts in England. He argues that consuming curry symbolizes working-class masculinity, with curry consumption being a phrase commonly used by white English men, especially after a pub visit.
Vindaloo, a popular Indian curry dish originating in Goa, has become an unofficial anthem in English football culture. Vindaloo was chosen due to its phonetic similarity to Waterloo, where Napoleon was defeated in 1815, and it has evolved into a symbol of English identity. Paradoxically, Vindaloo carries nationalist connotations, serving as an ironic representation of Englishness. English football fans frequently wave St. George’s flags and chant Vindaloo. The prevailing perception is that white English individuals consume curry in substantial quantities but may not exhibit friendliness toward the Asians who prepare it. It is interpreted as a manifestation of colonialism, wherein English football enthusiasts appropriated a dish created by Indians, effectively imposing their influence on Indian people and their culinary traditions.
As the wordplay suggests, ethnicity is likened to a seasoning, and British colonizers extend their control over society and its cuisine. However, Highmore argues that this common perception must fully grasp the situation’s complexity. According to him, what remains largely unexplored is the potential educational role of consuming curry, which could transform confrontations marked by aggression and xenophobia into opportunities for gaining insights into food culture and social dynamics. English individuals who opt for the spiciest items on the menu experience discomfort and perspiration caused by the chili, leading to sensations of pain in their tongues and mouths. Even after the meal, the effects of the chili persist as it continues its journey through the digestive system.
The Power of Sensory Pleasure
Highmore poses the question of whether chili has reshaped the sensory experiences of these men, making them more receptive to the pleasures and discomforts of chili. He suggests that sensory pleasure or appreciation modes may wield a more profound influence than intellectual understanding. Highmore contends that taste and smell not only play a significant role in the everyday expressions of racism but are also fundamental elements in friendly and cosmopolitan cultural and ethnic interactions. Uma Narayan’s perspective, which forms the foundation of Highmore’s argument, emphasizes that sensory enjoyment can foster stronger connections than knowledge, thereby nurturing robust multiculturalism and mitigating the physical detachment between ethnic communities.
Highmore commends an innovative approach in cross-cultural studies, a social aesthetics approach to intercultural culinary exchanges. This approach combines sociological elements with innovative sensory-based methodologies. Highmore defines “social aesthetics” as the reconfiguration of aesthetic experiences in large and small urban environments where significant shifts have occurred in the sensory landscape; this approach does not separate aesthetics from the political examination. Much like Highmore’s standpoint, smell and taste emerge as incidental components within a series of cultural contexts that necessitate clarification concerning the more intricate dimensions of political and sociological discourse.
Dining spaces facilitate interactions, where experiences and emotional sentiments such as joy, aggression, aversion, fear, and affection are negotiated, potentially leading to increased acceptance and understanding of others. The nature of the food itself also plays a role. For example, fresh coriander’s flavor can train foreigners’ palates to appreciate it. Highmore shares his experience with coriander, noting that he initially had an aversion to it but eventually developed a fondness for it over time. He realized that he could discern various flavors in his food, indicating that coriander had transformed his palate. In this context, food, taste, and smell shift from passive research tools to active agents of intercultural social change becomes evident.
Sensory Studies’ Contribution to Culture and Identity
To sum up, investigating taste, scent, and sensory encounters within cultural studies uncovers intricate connections among power dynamics, the formation of identity, and social change. Using others as a seasoning to prioritize white culture underscores how ethnicity influences and molds our perceptions while challenging the notion of a homogeneous white consumer group. Prominent figures in cultural studies, such as Lawrence Grossberg, stress the significance of radical contextualization, acknowledging that sensory experiences are subject to change and contingency. Although the study of sensory perception and the senses themselves have historically been overlooked in the social sciences, recent endeavors like the series A Cultural History of Senses and Senses and Sensations have propelled these subjects into the forefront.
Ethnographic analysis presents three potential avenues for further exploration: the impact of taste and smell on social distinctions, the principles and contradictions of societal preferences, and the transformation of tastes and cultures driven by political and economic factors. Ethnographers like Sarah Pink underscore the importance of sensory subjectivity and intersubjectivity, recognizing that sensory experiences are integral to knowledge creation. Investigations into taste and scent can offer insights into power dynamics, politics, and global/local transformations.
Food, serving as a communal educational tool and a catalyst for social transformation, has been thoroughly examined by scholars such as Sylvia Ferrero, Ayşe Çağlar, and Lisa Law. These studies challenge conventional notions of power dynamics and identity politics in the marketplace, demonstrating how food can foster solidarity, empowerment, and mutual understanding among diverse communities. Ben Highmore’s exploration of taste, xenophobia, and multiculturalism within the context of English football culture illustrates how sensory experiences can impact perceptions and interactions. His social aesthetic approach to intercultural culinary exchange underscores the potential of sensory experiences to reshape attitudes and promote multiculturalism.
Ultimately, research on taste, scent, and sensory experiences provides a rich and nuanced perspective on culture, identity, and social dynamics. It serves as a reminder that our senses are not passive observers but active contributors to our understanding of the world, capable of nurturing empathy, acceptance, and social change through shared experiences involving food and sensory perception.
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