Deconstructing Sufism: Epistemological Aspects of Mystical Thought

Criticism of Sufism in Contemporary Discourse

Throughout history, mystical thought has fascinated Muslim scholars, primarily because it possesses an irrational quality yet harbors intriguing ideas beneath its intuitive surface, rendering it deserving of scrutiny. This mode of thinking is more widely recognized among adherents of Sufism in the Islamic world, where they adhere to the doctrine of Sufism. One facet of Sufi culture involves an ascetic lifestyle that prioritizes spiritual matters transcending the worldly. Criticism of Sufism, often harsh in contemporary Islamic intellectual discourse, arises from the belief that it harms Muslims’ lives. This critique alleges a decline in scientific thinking among Muslims due to the irrational and transcendent tenets of Sufism and the claimed impoverishment resulting from Sufi asceticism. Besides its pessimistic view of the world, Sufi thought can also lead to the marginalization of its adherents.

Upon closer examination, it becomes apparent that Sufism’s negative perception of the world does not necessarily entail complete detachment from it. In general terms, Sufism aims to eradicate materialistic and pragmatic thinking. According to Fazlur Rahman Malik, Sufi’s recent tendency to regard the world negatively should be reinterpreted. He contends that traditional Sufi doctrines have overly emphasized ritualistic aspects.

An Influential Figure in Sufism

Among the numerous figures in Sufism, Jalaluddin Rakhmat stands out as a thinker who extensively delved into Sufi philosophy and played a pivotal role in dispelling certain misconceptions, notably in Indonesia. He was a profoundly influential Indonesian Muslim scholar and a recognized expert in communication. His ideas left a significant impact, primarily due to his commitment to advocating for the rights of marginalized communities and minorities and his efforts to reevaluate established Islamic thought.

Born in Bandung in August 1949, Jalaluddin was raised in a devoutly religious milieu, with his parents actively involved in Islamic activism. He also developed a habit of reading books from philosophy to religious studies. In addition to his travels to various Islamic boarding schools in West Java and his participation in an Islamic organization known as the Persatuan Islam (PERSIS), Jalaluddin pursued higher education at the University of Padjajaran, completing his studies in communication. Following his graduation, he returned to his alma mater to teach and subsequently secured a scholarship that enabled him to further his studies at Iowa State University. Eventually, he pursued doctoral studies at the Australian National University.

Jalaluddin was a multidimensional figure whose writings extended beyond religious matters to encompass non-religious domains like communication. While he was often associated with Shia Islam in Indonesia, his ideas were informed by the teachings of Ahl al-Bayt, leading to his involvement in establishing the Ikatan Jamaah Ahlulbait Indonesia organization. Notably, despite his recognition as a representative of Shia Islam in Indonesia, he did not espouse fanatical or exclusive beliefs tied to any particular sect. Instead, he consistently advocated for inter-sectarian dialogue to foster inclusivity and bridge divides within Islamic sects.

Tragically, on February 15, 2021, Jalaluddin passed away. His tireless efforts to promote an open and liberating interpretation of Islam and his unwavering dedication to the disadvantaged will continue to serve as a source of inspiration for future generations. It is particularly relevant given that the Muslim community’s challenges and issues persist.

The Binding Doctrines of Sufism

Looking at it from an epistemological angle, Sufism, as a mystical philosophy, serves as a method for seeking a truth that inherently lacks rationality. Furthermore, it aims to uncover the more profound meaning within the existing reality. Besides its inherently transcendent character, Sufism’s doctrines bind its followers to specific principles. For instance, organizations incorporate ritual practices and particular ethical concepts, often called “tariqa.”

Numerous scholars argue that one of the primary factors contributing to the decline of Islam can be attributed to the rise of practices rooted in Sufism when reevaluating the history of Islamic civilization. Consequently, the mystical nature of Sufi ideas tends to downplay rationality, cultivate a pessimistic worldview that ultimately perpetuates poverty, and promote behavior centered primarily on ritual aspects, giving rise to societal problems.

However, Jalaluddin presents a differing perspective, asserting that in the history of Islamic civilization, especially during its zenith, Sufism had a significant role and a profound impact on the era. It is evident in the emergence of figures like Junayd of Baghdad and Dhul-Nun al-Misri. Additionally, he contends that Sufism originated from valuing wealth rather than poverty. For instance, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, a companion of Muhammad, voiced numerous criticisms of affluent Muslims who displayed indifference towards others. These critiques later inspired some of the most influential Sufi figures.

Al-Farabi

Jalaluddin also argued that adopting mystical thinking, akin to the Sufis, does not entail forsaking intellectual vitality, as exemplified by notable figures in the Islamic world such as al-Farabi. While al-Farabi is primarily recognized as a scholar and philosopher, it is worth emphasizing that he was also a highly accomplished Sufi. Reports suggest that he lived a nomadic existence, constantly moving from one place to another. Ibn Khallikan described al-Farabi as a figure who paid little heed to purely materialistic concerns. Furthermore, his ideas are believed to have inspired a movement known as the Ikhwan As-Shafa or the Brethren of Purity. This movement embraced a moderate form of thought, evident in various manuscripts where they delved into both scientific and religious topics. According to Jalaluddin, their interests extended beyond the asceticism associated with Ali (ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib) to include dialectical explorations of Greek philosophers like Socrates.

The assertion that Sufi doctrines inevitably lead their followers to adopt a negative view of the world may be exaggerated. Instead, they perceive Sufis as accomplished individuals actively involved in societal affairs, often engaging in successful trade. Furthermore, the influence of Sufi practices can be seen in various social movements, including the Imam Mahdi movement in Sudan opposing French colonization, the Sanusiyyah movement in North Africa advocating for social revolution, and various social initiatives in Indonesia.

Kitab al-Zuhd

Within Sufism, the idea of Zuhd is often portrayed as a practice deeply rooted in asceticism, and this practice frequently gives rise to various misunderstandings that contribute to a negative perception of Sufism. According to Jalaluddin, the authentic essence of Zuhd does not solely reside in the process of its implementation in practice.

In the Islamic context, there existed an Imam named Ahmad ibn Hanbal who authored a work known as Kitab al-Zuhd, wherein he expounded upon the nuanced meaning of asceticism, grounded in religious motives. He delineated various tiers of Zuhd:

1. The practice of Zuhd for the general populace involves abstaining from all prohibited actions.
2. The practice of Zuhd for individuals of a unique nature requires refraining from excessive behaviors, even if they are permissible.
3. The practice of Zuhd for those deeply acquainted with Allah necessitates relinquishing everything that distracts from devotion to Allah.

Ultimately, the concept of Zuhd, driven by religious motives, shapes one’s way of life. Neglecting the standardization within Sufi doctrines can yield adverse consequences since the epistemological approach that underpins Sufism is inherently rational.